How to get more from readings

SECTION 1
Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3
Chapter 22
Chapter 4
Chapter 5

SECTION 2
Chapter 6
Chapter 7

Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10

Chapter 20

SECTION 3
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17

SECTION 4
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 21

Chapter 23

For the greatest part of the short history of wildlife management in the U.S., wildlife management was game management. Natural history and ecology of many birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other species not having status as game animals were studied but rarely to manage their numbers or habitats. Within the past decades, wildlife management has expanded its focus to include nongame species as part of an ecosystem along with other species managed as game species.

1. Definition
   1. Classification of wildlife into categories like game nongame lies in the political arena not the biological one
      1. such classifications are for purposes of management
      2. different, even neighboring, states classify the same animals differently while the animal itself did not change just by crossing the state border.
      3. Texas classifies wildlife animals as:
         1. Migratory birds: ducks, geese, cranes, doves, rails, woodcock, snipe…. etc.
         2. Game animals: e.g., deer, turkey, pronghorn, prairie chicken, pheasant, quail …etc.
         3. nongame (but harvested) animals: e.g., alligator….
         4. non-protected animals: e.g., feral hogs, squirrels, porcupines, rabbits, prairie dogs, weasels…etc.
            1. some non-protected animals have specific requirements about take: e.g., bobcat, coyote, armadillo, mountain lion
            2. others require license but take is not limited: e.g., bullfrogs, turtles, and snakes
         5. exotic animals: e.g., non-native ungulates like axis deer, sika deer, nilgai, blackbuck…etc.
         6. furbearing animals: e.g., badger, beaver, mink, muskrat, raccoon, skunk, opossum…etc.
         7. endangered, threatened and other protected nongame animals: includes lists of reptiles: e.g., sea turtles, Texas horned lizard, indigo snake, timber rattle snake…etc. , birds: e.g., hawks, owls, eagles, and all other non-game birds like songbirds (a few exceptions - see below)
            1. unprotected birds: e.g., starlings, English sparrows, rock doves, blackbirds and grackles, crows and magpies.
         8. game fish: e.g., bass, catfish, crappie, shad, sunfish, trout, walleye….etc.
         9. nongame fish: e.g., other freshwater fishes
         10. saltwater finfish: red drum, striped bass, flounder, mackerel, snapper, shark…etc.
         11. crabs & shrimp
         12. other aquatic life (fresh and salt water): e.g., clams etc.
   2. such classifications relate to how animals are managed in a state. Being nongame does not necessarily afford the species protection. In fact, many game species are more protected from humans that nongame species are.
2. Economic values
   1. $$ expenditures for wildlife by the American public are immense
   2. Nongame expenditures actually exceed $$ spent related to hunting and fishing
      1. money spent on field guides, birdseed, visiting / viewing wildlife, camera equipment, wildlife society (e.g., Audubon etc.) memberships
      2. about $500 million is spent on non-consumptive "use" of wildlife
         1. birdseed alone exceeded $170 million in 1974
         2. while about $300 million was spent by duck hunters in 1974
      3. consumptive and nonconsumptive uses are compatible
3. Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1980 - Forsythe-Chaffee Act
   1. Failed attempts to fund nongame wildlife management
      1. 1975 - a failed attempt to pass excise tax on birdseed, certain camera equipment, and other items associated with nongame recreation - defeated by birdseed lobby
   2. Forsythe-Chaffee Act passed in1980
      1. provided mechanism (like Pittman-Robertson) with a 90:10 split for developing comprehensive wildlife management plans - including all wildlife not just game species
      2. 4-year appropriation of $20 million was proposed
      3. unfortunately funding authorized by the Act was never passed
4. State funding for nongame management
   1. Income tax check-offs
      1. Colorado was the first in 1978 (by 1994 36 other states)
      2. taxpayers could donate portions of their tax refund to nongame wildlife management
      3. Colorado raised $350,000 in first year alone
      4. however, $$values raised with this method decline over time as other check-offs compete for refund $$
      5. uncertainty of $$ available year to year from this source hinder development and maintenance of effective management programs (they need steady support)
   2. License plate sales
      1. Several states; Washington, Florida etc. charge fees for a special auto license plate (usually with wildlife depicted on the plate) revenues go to nongame wildlife management
         1. same problem of uncertain revenues
   3. State sales tax percentages
      1. Missouri example:
         1. good reliable funding mechanism a small percent of taxes collected from retail sales goes to wildlife management
5. Status and Concerns of nongame management
   1. All states (except Vermont and South Dakota) have established formal nongame and endangered species management programs
   2. Budgets and personnel vary widely ($30,000 to $1.1 million) and average 5 nongame / endangered employees per state
   3. Why is nongame poorly supported ?
      1. poor name, lacks identity - people are confused as to what nongame animals are. We need to remove distinction and develop comprehensive wildlife management
      2. Nongame laws are inconsistent and selectively enforced - large sectors of the public view nongame as those obscure, slimy,scaley species that often obstruct human developments
      3. public attitudes about use of wildlife are polarized - hunting vs. anti-hunting with only 7% of the overall American public being ecologistic.
      4. concern that support for nongame will erode traditional support for game species.
6. Out of Africa: vulture restaurants
   1. Interesting case study of results of providing carcasses for vultures in Africa.
7. Endangered species
   1. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
      1. Red Data Book - lists all species judged as endangered with extinction by state, federal, and international agencies and organizations
      2. humans have been responsible for the loss of over ¾ of the animals that have gone extinct since 1600.
   2. Reasons species become endangered
      1. natural causes - (< ¼ of losses since 1600)
         1. extinction is a natural process (part of evolution) based on fossil records most species have about a 2 million year life span
         2. overspecialization, competition, catastrophic events, climate change are examples of natural causes of species extinctions
         3. species can actually die out or evolve into some new different species
      2. Hunting -
         1. overexploitation by humans
         2. examples include those directly exploited e.g., passenger pigeons, whales, spotted cats, rhinoceros etc.) and nontarget species inadvertently taken by hunting, trapping, lethal ocntrol aimed at other species
      3. Introduced predators -
         1. introduction of exotic species plays havoc with native ecosystems.
         2. Loss of majority of island dwelling species resulted from this means
         3. mongoose example
      4. Nonpredatory exotics -
         1. primarily animals introduced for human desires that serve as agents of competition or transmission of disease to native populations
         2. Sika deer, goats on islands, starlings etc.
      5. Habitat modification -
         1. Most important factor in modern world
         2. human modification of environment for development, agriculture, industry etc.
   3. Factors that predispose species to becoming endangered
      1. species with narrow habitat requirements or restricted distribution
         1. U.S. examples include: golden-cheeked warbler, Indiana bat…
      2. species of economic importance to humans
         1. U.S. examples include: Blue whale, Atlantic salmon, ocelot…
      3. species of large size or particulalry predaotrs and those intolerant to humans
         1. U.S. examples include: grizzly bear, gray wolf, bald eagle ….
      4. species with low reproductive rates
         1. U.S. examples include: California condor, Mississippi sandhill crane…..
      5. species with highly specialized adaptations or genetic vulnerability
         1. U.S. examples include: manatee, red wolf ….
8. A brief history of nongame and endangered species -
   1. Conservation and preservation of wildlife has always been concerned with species that have been classified as nongame
      1. Pelican Island - 1903 1^st National wildlife refuge was created for herons and egrets (nongame)
      2. Migratory bird treaties 1916-1918 protected nongame shorebirds, cranes etc. as well as waterfowl game species
      3. Rachel Carsons' Silent Spring pointed out the perils of DDT primarily to nongame songbird species and prompted the environmental movement in the U.S.
   2. Endangered species legislation
      1. 1966 - Endangered Species Preservation Act
         1. authorized Sec. Interior to: conduct research on species to determine potential for extinction, acquire habitat using $$ from Land and Water Conservation Act
         2. formalized the national Wildlife Refuge System as a means for protecting endangered species
      2. 1969 - Endangered Species Conservation Act
         1. expanded original definition to include all vertebrates and some invertebrates
         2. prohibited the importation of endangered species or their products and the addition of foreign species to the U.S.
      3. 1973 - Endangered Species Act
         1. modified again to include plants as well as animals
         2. made distinction between endangered and threatened
            1. Endangered species are those faced with extinction in all or much of their range
            2. Threatened species are those that seem likely to become endangered in the near future
         3. also recognized separate populations and subspecies as species providing protection for things like the Florida panther - endangered subspecies of mountain lion (a species that is not endangered elsewhere in its range)
      4. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
         1. now includes 125 nations
         2. listing endangered species and agreeing to prohibit international trade in species or products on lists.
      5. Section 4: Criteria for determining a Threatened or Endangered Species
         1. habitat destruction
         2. over exploitation
         3. threatened eradication from disease or predation
         4. inadequate regulations for protection
      6. Section 7
         1. requires all federal agencies to consult with Dep. Interior about any proposed actions that might jeopardize listed species.
         2. this is the teeth in the law. The mechanism that stops actions that affect T&E species.
9. Triage: the crush of decision
   1. On average, at least 1 species becomes extinct each day
   2. how do we decide which of these many species to deal with ?
   3. Triage criteria proposed:
      1. Came from medics dealing with wounded (e.g., MASH)
         1. those who likely would die despite medical attention
         2. those with minor wounds that can wait for attention
         3. those who likely would die if not given attention now.
      2. proposed factors for endangered species
         1. relative difficulty in aiding species involved
         2. genetic issues
         3. economic relationships with humans
         4. biological uniqueness of species
10. Management of endangered species
    1. examples of actions taken for :
       1. Whooping cranes
       2. Eastern timber wolf
       3. Kirtland's warbler
       4. Masked bobwhite